The federal government has committed resources to address such societal dimensions of nanotechnology as responsible nanomanufacturing and human health and safety. Potential risks encompass those resulting from human, animal, or environmental exposure. Other projects in ORD laboratories include research on nanostructured photocatalysts as green alternatives for oxygenation of hydrocarbons; studies of nanomaterials for use as adsorbents, membranes, and catalysts to control air pollution and emissions; and research on the effects of ultrafine particulate matter that could help inform research on manufactured nanomaterials.
Food and Drug Administration FDA , established the Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory in to perform preclinical efficacy and toxicity testing of nanoparticles. In addition, the FDA has a grants program in support of orphan products research and development, but it does not conduct research in support of particular product applications.
In its May report, PCAST acknowledged that current knowledge and data to assess the actual risks posed by nanotechnology products are incomplete. Furthermore, PCAST said that since exposure to nanomaterials is most likely to occur during the manufacturing process, research on potential hazards associated with workplace exposure must be given the highest priority.
Group, which now involves over half of the federal agencies participating in the NNI. Provide for exchange of information among agencies that support nanotechnology research and those responsible for regulation and guidelines related to nanoproducts defined as indicated above , to enable better communication of information on EHS issues relating to nanotechnology;. Facilitate the identification, prioritization, and implementation of research and other activities required for responsible research and development, utilization, and oversight of nanotechnology, including research methods for life cycle analysis, and support the development of tools and methods to identify and prioritize risk analysis research;.
Promote communication of information related to research on environmental and health implications of nanotechnology to other government agencies and non-government parties, and support the development of nanotechnology standards, including nomenclature and terminology, by consensus-based standards organizations; and.
Assist in the development of information and strategies for safe handling and use of nanoproducts by researchers, workers, and consumers.
In June , the EPA held its first public meeting about a voluntary proposed pilot program that would allow companies to submit information on the nanomaterials they are producing, how much is being produced, and possible worker exposure. For instance, in the U. The paper focuses specifically on the need for thorough characterization of the properties of nanomaterials used in screening studies in order to obtain meaningful and useful results.
Swiss Re, a global reinsurer in the field of risk and capital management, published Nanotechnology: Small Matter, Many Unknowns , a report that addresses the risks and implications of nanotechnology, including EHS effects.
Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties , a report released in by the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering in the United Kingdom, identified a need for more research to assess the potential risks relating to nanotechnology and recommended that the UK government establish an interdisciplinary program for research on the toxicological effects of nanotechnology.
However, on December 2, , the UK government published a report that addressed the current state of knowledge on the potential risks of nanoparticles and identified areas in need of.
In summary, various activities in the United States and abroad reflect steps taken toward addressing EHS issues, but it is clear to the committee that there is still much work to be done.
Ultimately, the studies and reports noted above suggest that there is a need for continued risk assessment and the establishment of regulations as appropriate, but more importantly, they also point out that for now there is very little information and data on, or analysis of, EHS impacts related to nanotechnology. The activities and studies mentioned above highlight some of the EHS issues relating to nanotechnology, but the body of published research addressing the toxicological and environmental effects of engineered nanomaterials is still relatively small.
Such materials can include nanoparticles in the environment that can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin—such as aerosols, powders, suspensions, and slurries—as well as materials in the workplace that degrade during grinding, cutting, machining, or other occupational use. A search in PubMed of the literature up to showed publications on the toxicological effects of two classes of particles—that is, chemically defined ultrafine particles incidental, or naturally occurring such as carbon black and silica, and intentionally engineered nanomaterials such as fullerenes and carbon nanotubes.
The number of publications relating to incidental ultrafine particles exceeds the number relating to engineered nanomaterials by about to 1. In the small amount of research that has been done, there is evidence of adverse effects of engineered nanomaterials on laboratory animals. Each concluded independently that these engineered nanomaterials showed unique toxic properties different from those of incidental particles such as carbon black, suggesting that it was the toxicity of these engineered nanomaterials, and not just the size, that presented potential EHS risks.
In the study conducted by Lam et al. In the work of Warheit et al. According to Warheit, health risk is a product of immediate hazards presented by, as well as the effects of longer-term exposure to, nanomaterials, and many different variables are involved in assessing toxicological effects.
In particular, the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion characteristics and toxicity of quantum dots have been shown to be highly dependent on both inherent physicochemical properties and environmental conditions. Developing a better understanding of the toxicity of nanomaterials also involves evaluating the effects of routes of exposure inhalation, oral, dermal , the dose and magnitude of exposure, and the extent of biological response local versus systemic.
Information on the composition and structure of nanomaterials, purity levels, and well-defined controls and baselines must be known to identify potential risks. An indication of the number of variables and degree of complexity involved is apparent in the above-mentioned study conducted by Lam et al.
The study by Warheit et al. The composition of the soot was 30 to 40 percent amorphous carbon, 5 percent each of nickel and cobalt, and the remainder SWNT agglomerates. Quartz particles in the form of crystalline silica Min-U-Sil-5 , from Pittsburgh Glass and Sand Corporation, and carbonyl iron particles, from GAF Corporation, were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The number and types of variables in these two studies alone suggest the type and amount of work needed to ensure reproducibility of the results of these experiments, in particular, in regard to the nanomaterials used and the resulting specific EHS impact posited.
That is, the experimental methodology should inspire confidence in the results, data, and conclusions. Chemical and physical data developed previously on chemically identical materials cannot be extrapolated to materials at the nanoscale, in part because bulk properties of materials significantly differ from the surface properties that are dominant at the nanoscale.
Gathering relevant data specific to nanomaterials is essential to developing a relevant risk assessment process. Most of the studies done to date have been conducted on laboratory rats, rabbits, and pigs, in which observed responses may differ from those in humans. Limited data are available on which to base predictions of real risks to humans; results of experimentation using animal models must be reproduced and extended in additional studies.
Some preliminary studies have been performed in vivo in humans, including, for example, investigation of the effects of inhaled nanoparticles and ultrafine particles. The laboratory or manufacturing environments are the settings where the initial contact between people—for example, researchers, technicians, and manufacturers—and nanomaterials occurs.
As mentioned above, due to the potentially toxic properties of engineered nanomaterials, nanotechnology poses new challenges to conventional approaches to addressing occupational health and safety risk. Proactive risk assessment and management of any technology require extensive strategic research 50 that could include such critical issues as assessing how toxicity differs as a function of type of nanomaterial, exposure route, dose, and biological effects and activity.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH has been providing national and world leadership in the responsible development and prevention of work-related illness and injury associated with nanotechnology. Under NORA, research has focused on characterization of the physical and chemical properties of nanoaerosols, their effects on health, and whether they present work-related health risks.
In addition, other NIOSH divisions have funded intramural nanotechnology research relating to occupational safety and health. The library contains images of nanoparticles, as well as information on the origin and synthesis of different kinds of nanoparticles, known applications and industries, and health and safety notes, including links to material safety data sheets.
In addition, the European Commission has also enacted new regulations. This section discusses some of these developments.
A particularly daunting challenge is deciding whether a nanomaterial is a new chemical substance under the TSCA Chemicals Substance Inventory. TSCA defines a. In addition, too little research has been conducted on environmental health and safety issues to assess whether certain nanomaterials are a risk or a potential risk to the environment or human health. Therefore it is not clear whether the TSCA in its existing form can address these challenges in nanotechnology.
On June 23, , in an attempt to address these issues, EPA conducted a public meeting on nanomaterials to discuss a proposed voluntary pilot program to collect information on nanomaterials that are manufactured, imported, processed, or used by companies. Under the new system called REACH Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals , businesses that manufacture or import more than 1 ton of a chemical substance per year would be required to register it in a central database.
The aims of the proposed regulations are to improve the protection of human health and the environment while maintaining the competitiveness and enhancing the innovative capability of the EU chemicals industry. REACH is designed to give greater responsibility to industry to manage the risks from chemicals and to provide safety information on the substances. This information would be passed down the chain of production. REACH shifts the burden of proof to industry to ascertain the risk of a material before it is introduced to the EU market.
Life cycle assessment LCA is the systematic analysis of the resources usages e. Life cycle assessment is an important component of responsible development of nanotechnology; it requires paying careful attention to the full life-cycle risks presented by materials and products.
Several nanotechnology-based applications and processes have claimed to bring environmental benefits, for example, through fewer resources required in manufacture or improved energy efficiency in use—or use of nanoparticles for cleaning up contaminated environments soil, water.
LCA is now a standardized and accepted tool, covered by a set of international standards ISO — Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties. London: The Royal Society. Concerns have been expressed by EU member states, industry, and the U. The U. The FDA regulates products only as a result of claims made by the product sponsor; that is, if a manufacturing company makes no claims with respect to a role for nanotechnology in the manufacture or performance of the product, the FDA may be unaware that nanotechnology is being used.
The FDA regards its existing pharmacotoxicity tests as adequate for evaluating most nanoproducts, but as new materials or new conformations of existing materials are developed that are identified as having the potential to pose new toxicological risks, new tests will be required.
Existing Consumer Product Safety Commission CPSC regulations and guidelines are being used to assess the potential safety and health risks of nanomaterials that are incorporated into consumer products. However, the assessment of health risks relating to nanotechnology is incomplete and inconclusive. Once these risks become well characterized and as proof of any hazards emerges, other regulations and guidelines, such as the Flammable Fabrics Act and the Poison Prevention Packaging Act, may also apply to consumer products in which nanotechnology is used.
American physicist Richard Feynman is considered the father of nanotechnology. Modern nanotechnology truly began in , when the scanning tunneling microscope allowed scientists and engineers to see and manipulate individual atoms.
The Binnig and Rohrer Nanotechnology Center in Zurich, Switzerland, continues to build on the work of these pioneering scientists by conducting research and developing new applications for nanotechnology.
By the end of the 20th century, many companies and governments were investing in nanotechnology. Major nanotech discoveries, such as carbon nanotubes, were made throughout the s. By the early s, nanomaterials were being used in consumer products from sports equipment to digital cameras. Modern nanotechnology may be quite new, but nanometer-scale materials have been used for centuries. As early as the 4th century, Roman artists had discovered that adding gold and silver to glass created a startling effect: The glass appeared slate green when lit from the outside, but glowed red when lit from within.
Nanoparticles of gold and silver were suspended in the glass solution, coloring it. The most famous surviving example of this technique is a ceremonial vessel , the Lycurgus Cup.
Artists from China, western Asia, and Europe were also using nanoparticles of silver and copper, this time in pottery glazes. This gave a distinctive " luster " to ceramic s such as tiles and bowls. In , modern microscopy revealed the technology of " Damascus steel ," a metal used in South Asia and the Middle East until the technique was lost in the 18th century—carbon nanotubes. Swords made with Damascus steel are legendary for their strength, durability, and ability to maintain a very sharp edge.
One of the most well-known examples of pre-modern use of nanomaterials is in European medieval stained-glass windows. Like the Romans before them, medieval artisans knew that by putting varying, small amounts of gold and silver in glass, they could produce bright reds and yellows. Many government s, scientists, and engineers are researching the potential of nanotechnology to bring affordable, high-tech, and energy-efficient products to millions of people around the world. Nanotechnology has improved the design of products such as light bulbs, paints, computer screens, and fuels.
Nanotechnology is helping inform the development of alternative energy sources, such as solar and wind power. Solar cells, for instance, turn sunlight into electric current s. Nanotechnology could change the way solar cells are used, making them more efficient and affordable. Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, are usually assembled as a series of large, flat panels. These solar panels are big and bulky. They are also expensive and often difficult to install.
Using nanotechnology, scientists and engineers have been able to experiment with print-like development processes, which reduces manufacturing costs. Some experimental solar panels have been made in flexible rolls rather than rigid panels.
In the future, panels might even be "painted" with photovoltaic technology. The bulky, heavy blades on wind turbine s may also benefit from nanotech. An epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being used to make turbine blades that are longer, stronger, and lighter. Other nanotech innovations may include a coating to reduce ice build-up. Nanotech is already helping increase the energy-efficiency of products. One of the United Kingdom's biggest bus operators, for instance, has been using a nano-fuel additive for close to a decade.
Engineers mix a tiny amount of the additive with diesel fuel, and the cerium-oxide nanoparticles help the fuel burn more cleanly and efficiently. Access to clean water has become a problem in many parts of the world.
Nanomaterials may be a tiny solution to this large problem. Nanomaterials can strip water of toxic metals and organic molecules. For example, researchers have discovered that nanometer-scale specks of rust are magnetic, which can help remove dangerous chemicals from water. Other engineers are developing nanostructured filter s that can remove virus cells from water. Researchers are also experimenting with using nanotechnology to safely, affordably, and efficiently turn saltwater into freshwater, a process called desalination.
In one experiment, nano-sized electrode s are being used to reduce the cost and energy requirements of removing salts from water. Scientists and engineers are experimenting with nanotechnology to help isolate and remove oil spilled from offshore oil platform s and container ships.
One method uses nanoparticles' unique magnetic properties to help isolate oil. Oil itself is not magnetic, but when mixed with water-resistant iron nanoparticles, it can be magnetically separated from seawater. The nanoparticles can later be removed so the oil can be used.
Another method involves the use of a nanofabric "towel" woven from nanowires. These towels can absorb 20 times their weight in oil.
Hundreds of consumer products are already benefiting from nanotechnology. You may be wearing, eating, or breathing nanoparticles right now! Scientists and engineers are using nanotechnology to enhance clothing. By coating fabrics with a thin layer of zinc oxide nanoparticles, for instance, manufacturers can create clothes that give better protection from ultraviolet radiation , like that from the sun.
Some clothes have nanoparticles in the form of little hairs or whiskers that help repel water and other materials, making fabric more stain-resistant. Some researchers are experimenting with nanotechnology for "personal climate control.
Many cosmetic products contain nanoparticles. Nanometer-scale materials in these products provide greater clarity , coverage, cleansing, or absorption. For instance, the nanoparticles used in sunscreen titanium dioxide and zinc oxide provide reliable, extensive protection from harmful UV radiation. These nanomaterials offer better light reflection for a longer time period. Nanotechnology may also provide better "delivery systems" for cosmetic ingredients.
Nanotech is revolutionizing the sports world. Nanometer-scale additives can make sporting equipment lightweight, stiff, and durable. Carbon nanotubes, for example, are used to make bicycle frames and tennis rackets lighter, thinner, and more resilient. Nanotubes give golf clubs and hockey sticks a more powerful and accurate drive.
Carbon nanotubes embedded in epoxy coatings make kayaks faster and more stable in the water. A similar epoxy keeps tennis balls bouncy. The food industry is using nanomaterials in both the packaging and agricultural sectors.
Clay nanocomposites provide an impenetrable barrier to gases such as oxygen or carbon dioxide in lightweight bottles, cartons, and packaging films. Many high-performance electronic devices rely on nanotechnology, e. Nanomaterials are providing novel solutions for medical applications and cosmetics, hence the health and beauty sector has seen the greatest rise in nanotechnology focused research. Nanomaterials are widely used in consumer and industrial applications.
In industrial products nanomaterials are regularly used to impart advantageous physico-chemical properties durability, lustre, and water-resistance , e. Consumer products also use the same rationale for the addition of nanoparticles to products, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are a widely used nanoparticles in sunblock and creams, acting as UV filters.
In medicine, nanomaterials offer solutions in diagnostics, prophylactics, and treatment of diseases. Nanotechnology has great potential for applications in the field of cancer research and diagnostics. With the use of nanotechnology clinicians are able to monitor individual cells in the body.
Biomarker detection using nanotechnology nanoprobes offers the possibility of early detection, and research in the field of proteomics and genomics facilitated by nanobiosensors has the potential for the prevention and control of diseases. Nanomaterials offer great potential and advancements for society. As larger numbers of nanotechnology products become available the exposure of nanomaterials increases, it is important to understand any potential risks that may be involved, and accordingly research to understand the biological nature of nanomaterials is high on the agenda for regulatory bodies across the world.
It has improved our lives quietly but significantly, and with the continuous effort of researchers around the world nanotechnology persists to develop solutions in cosmetics, technology, medicines, and tools that benefit our daily life both at home and in the workplace. Topics: Nano technology. Many benefits of nanotechnology depend on the fact that it is possible to tailor the structures of materials at extremely small scales to achieve specific properties, thus greatly extending the materials science toolkit.
Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be made stronger, lighter, more durable, more reactive, more sieve-like, or better electrical conductors, among many other traits. Many everyday commercial products are currently on the market and in daily use that rely on nanoscale materials and processes:.
Nanotechnology has greatly contributed to major advances in computing and electronics, leading to faster, smaller, and more portable systems that can manage and store larger and larger amounts of information. These continuously evolving applications include:. National Nanotechnology Initiative. Benefits and Applications. Everyday Materials and Processes Many benefits of nanotechnology depend on the fact that it is possible to tailor the structures of materials at extremely small scales to achieve specific properties, thus greatly extending the materials science toolkit.
Many everyday commercial products are currently on the market and in daily use that rely on nanoscale materials and processes: Nanoscale additives to or surface treatments of fabrics can provide lightweight ballistic energy deflection in personal body armor, or can help them resist wrinkling, staining, and bacterial growth. Clear nanoscale films on eyeglasses, computer and camera displays, windows, and other surfaces can make them water- and residue-repellent, antireflective, self-cleaning, resistant to ultraviolet or infrared light, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-resistant, or electrically conductive.
Lightweighting of cars, trucks, airplanes, boats, and space craft could lead to significant fuel savings. Nanoscale additives in polymer composite materials are being used in baseball bats, tennis rackets, bicycles, motorcycle helmets, automobile parts, luggage, and power tool housings, making them lightweight, stiff, durable, and resilient.
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